Ten years of hand hygiene excellence: a summary of outcomes, and a comparison of indicators, from award-winning hospitals worldwide.

BACKGROUND: Hand hygiene is a crucial measure for the prevention of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). The Hand Hygiene Excellence Award (HHEA) is an international programme acknowledging healthcare facilities for their leadership in implementing hand hygiene improvement programmes, including the World Health Organisation's Multimodal Improvement Strategy. This study aimed at summarising the results of the HHEA campaign between 2010 and 2021 and investigating the relationship between different hand hygiene parameters based on data from participating healthcare facilities. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was performed on datasets from HHEA forms, including data on hand hygiene compliance, alcohol-based handrub (ABHR) consumption, and Hand Hygiene Self-Assessment Framework (HHSAF) scores. Descriptive statistics were reported for each variable. The correlation between variables was inspected through Kendall's test, while possible non-linear relationships between hand hygiene compliance, ABHR consumption and HHSAF scores were sought through the Locally Estimated Scatterplot Smoothing or logistic regression models. A tree-structured partitioning model was developed to further confirm the obtained findings. RESULTS: Ninety-seven healthcare facilities from 28 countries in three world regions (Asia-Pacific, Europe, Latin America) were awarded the HHEA and thus included in the analysis. HHSAF scores indicated an advanced hand hygiene promotion level (median 445 points, IQR 395-480). System change (100 [95-100] points) and institutional safety climate (85 [70-95] points) showed the highest and lowest score, respectively. In most cases, hand hygiene compliance was above 70%, with heterogeneity between countries. ABHR consumption above 20 millilitres per patient-day (ml/PD) was widely reported, with overall increasing trends. HHSAF scores were positively correlated with hand hygiene compliance (τ = 0.211, p = 0.007). We observed a positive correlation between compliance rates and ABHR consumption (τ = 0.193, p < 0.001), although the average predicted consumption was stable around 55-60 ml/PD for compliance rates above 80-85%. Logistic regression and partitioning tree analyses revealed that higher HHSAF scores were more likely in the high-ABHR consumption group at cut-offs around 57-59 ml/PD. CONCLUSION: Ten years after its inception, the HHEA proves to be a valuable hand hygiene improvement programme in healthcare facilities worldwide. Consistent results were provided by the different hand hygiene indicators and the HHSAF score represents a valuable proxy measure of hand hygiene compliance.

Disinfection and hand hygiene knowledge, attitude, and practices among childcare facilities staff during the COVID-19 pandemic in Anhui, China: a cross-sectional study.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) regarding disinfection and hand hygiene, along with associated influencing factors among childcare facilities staff during the COVID-19 pandemic in Anhui, and to provide information for developing disinfection and hand hygiene strategies for childcare facilities. Methods: A web-based cross-sectional study was conducted among Anhui Province residents in China in September 2020. In this study, 60 childcare facilities in two cities of Anhui Province were selected using the convenient sampling method for questionnaires. The questionnaires were distributed through a web-based platform. The disinfection and hand hygiene KAP scores among childcare facilities staff were calculated, and their influencing factors were analyzed. The accuracy rates of knowledge, attitude, and practice of behavior were calculated and analyzed. Results: A total of 1,029 participants were included in the study. The disinfection and hand hygiene knowledge, attitude and practice ranged from approximately 5 to 23, 1 to 5, 3 to 13, respectively. The score of urban areas was higher than that of rural areas. Higher education levels and more years of working were associated with higher scores. Additionally, staff who received training or supervision had higher scores than those without. The categories with the lowest knowledge accuracy rate (46.3%), lowest attitude accuracy rate (4.2%), and "always" practice rate (5.3%) among childcare facility staff were all related to the question categories concerning the appropriate range of disinfectants for use. The accuracy rates of hand hygiene knowledge and attitude among the childcare facility staff were high (83.7%-99.6%), but the "always" practice rate was in the middle range (63.0%). Conclusion: The disinfection and hand hygiene knowledge among childcare facilities staff was inadequate during the COVID-19 pandemic in Anhui. Continuous implementation of education and training, particularly in rural areas, is essential. Establishing a monitoring system to assess usage effectiveness and adverse reactions in China is critical. Interventions should focus on increasing compliance with hand hygiene practices. Further research should explore the training and intervention of disinfection and hand hygiene, the safety of disinfection measures, and more operational hand hygiene methods in childcare facilities.

The combined application of hand hygiene and non-sterile gloves by nurses in a tertiary hospital: a multi methods study.

BACKGROUND: The application of hand hygiene (HH) and the use of non-sterile gloves (NSG) in daily care is highly intertwined. We aimed (1) to assess the combined application of HH and NSG among nurses and (2) to explore determinants that influence their ability to combine both measures in their care. METHODS: In a multi-methods study, we combined direct observations of care episodes with semi-structured interviews with nurses in two affiliated university hospitals. Topics were based on Flottorp's checklist of determinants of practice. RESULTS: In total, we observed 205 care episodes and interviewed 10 nurses. Observations revealed that the combination of NSG and HH was correctly applied in 19% of care episodes in which a single procedure was executed, and in 2% of care episodes in which multiple procedures were performed. From the interviews, we found determinants that influenced compliance, covered mainly by three out of seven of Flottorp's checklist domains. Nurses indicated that their knowledge of protocols was limited to HH and protocols were hardly ever actively consulted; visual reminders within their workplace were used as sources of information. Nurses' behavior was primarily influenced by their ability to operationalize this information and their ability to integrate both infection prevention measures into their care. The intention to apply and combine HH and NSG use was influenced by their risk assessment of cross-contamination, by the urge to self-protect and gut feeling. The feasibility to execute HH and NSG protocols is influenced by the urgency and the complexity of the care episode. CONCLUSIONS: The combined correct application with HH and NSG measures by nurses is low. Nurses are instructed in a fragmented way while in the day to day care HH and NSG use are highly intertwined. Operationalization and simplification of infection prevention protocols, in which instructions on both infection prevention measures are fused, should be considered. Strategies to improve practice should consider the power of habit and nurses urge to self-protect.

Updates and future directions regarding hand hygiene in the healthcare setting: insights from the 3rd ICPIC alcohol-based handrub (ABHR) task force.

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) pose threats to global health. Effective hand hygiene is essential for preventing HAIs and the spread of AMR in healthcare. We aimed to highlight the recent progress and future directions in hand hygiene and alcohol-based handrub (ABHR) use in the healthcare setting. In September 2023, 42 experts in infection prevention and control (IPC) convened at the 3rd International Conference on Prevention and Infection Control (ICPIC) ABHR Taskforce in Geneva, Switzerland. The purpose of this meeting was to provide a synthesis of recent evidence and formulate a research agenda on four critical areas for the implementation of effective hand hygiene practices: (1) ABHR formulations and hand rubbing techniques, (2) low-resource settings and local production of ABHR, (3) hand hygiene monitoring and technological innovations, and (4) hand hygiene standards and guidelines.

To Analyze and Evaluate the Rate of Compliance of Hand Hygiene Practices in a Tertiary Care Hospital: Initiation of Quality Improvement Program and Clinical Audit.

INTRODUCTION: Health care as a service organization is associated with hospital-acquired infection which is drawing attention. There are concerns raised by patients, attenders, stake holders, insurers, government agencies, and regulatory bodies. The study aims to evaluate the awareness and the rate of compliance with hand hygiene. METHODS: The audit methodology implemented is a concurrent medical record audit. The period of the audit was conducted for 6 months. A random sampling method was incorporated. The sample size was determined as 20% of the staff had been involved. RESULTS: The Total average level of awareness of hand hygiene and adherence to policy is 93.6%. The average of all the 3 categories of compliance at 5 levels of hand hygiene in percentage is 82.3%. DISCUSSION: Hand hygiene practices if stringently implemented will minimize the cross-transmission of infection in health care facilities. By knowing the awareness level and compliance level are measured with standardized training modules. APPLICATIONS: Create awareness on hand hygiene and provide training with respect to the effectiveness of implementation. Incorporate hand hygiene steps as well as in the audit process. CONCLUSIONS: There is a requirement for training with respect to the effectiveness of the implementation of the techniques. The level of care and quality of services can be made better by incorporating quality improvement programs (QIPs). By regular audits, we can raise the service quality and benchmark it.

Hand Hygiene Messaging Design in the Workplace: Views From the Workforce-Introduction.

AIMS: The study aimed to (1) discover workers' attitudes toward the use of novel video screens to improve hand sanitization in the workplace and (2) discover what workers' preferences are for hand hygiene (HH) messaging style and tone and reasons for their preferences. BACKGROUND: Practicing good HH in non-medical office settings is vital to curb the spread of a range of common and infectious diseases. Despite this, workers are rarely consulting in the construction of HH messages. The qualitative views of users can provide us with the "why" rather than the "what" and can highlight areas of cynicism, concern and overall attitudes to HH. METHODS: A survey was completed by 520 UK workers concerning attitudes and views toward HH messaging and the use of a video-based hand sanitizer unit. Analysis consisted of both qualitative and quantitative methods. RESULTS: Workers were skeptical toward the use of digital technologies within HH interventions, and there were misgivings about the role that video could play. Results demonstrated a strong preference for positive and supportive messages. Educational and trustworthy qualities were well rated. Messages that emphasized surveillance, previously successful in a clinical setting, or guilt, were not well received. Visual approaches that utilized serious illustration were valued. CONCLUSION: This study highlights how consulting workers before the design of HH initiatives is important in guiding the design process. The resultant user-centered criteria promotes the use of positive, motivational, thought-provoking, surprising, and visual approaches to HH messaging.

Intervención educativa virtual sobre higiene de manos para estudiantes de enfermería de una universidad privada de la selva peruana / [Virtual educational intervention on hand hygiene for nursing students from a private university in the Peruvian jungle]

Introducción: Las manos son el vehículo más común para la transmisión de microorganismos en el entorno sanitario. Por esta razón, se necesita promover el cumplimiento habitual de la higiene de las manos. Objetivo: Evaluar el efecto de una intervención educativa virtual para los conocimientos y las prácticas sobre la higiene de manos en los estudiantes de enfermería. Métodos: El diseño de estudio fue cuasi-experimental (pre-post test) en 61 estudiantes de enfermería. Se efectuó una intervención educativa virtual de manera teórica y demostrativa para medir el conocimiento sobre la higiene de manos, las prácticas del lavado de manos clínico y la fricción de manos por base alcohólica. Se empleó la prueba T-Student para muestras pareadas y la prueba de U de Mann Whitney. Resultados: Hubo una mejora significativa en el conocimiento y las prácticas sobre la higiene de manos entre los estudiantes después de la intervención (p:<0,001). Conclusiones: La intervención educativa virtual tuvo un efecto en el aumento de los conocimientos y las prácticas sobre la higiene de manos. Se recomienda que se impulse este tipo de intervención de manera continua desde pregrado. (AU)

A Pilot Study of Deep Learning Models for Camera based Hand Hygiene Monitoring in ICU.

Hand hygiene is key to preventing cross-infections in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU). Monitoring of hand washing activities can effectively increase the compliance of clinicians to hand hygiene. In this paper, we explored the feasibility of recognizing clinicians' hand-washing activities using a clinical dataset recorded in ICU using CCTV cameras. We benchmarked three types of hand hygiene detection methods on the dataset with the aim of identifying the 7-step hand washing procedure defined by WHO. Experimental results show that our approach achieves 97% average accuracy for personalized and 67% for generalized modeling. Preliminary results indicate that hand hygiene recognition is subject-dependent, and thus cross-subject modeling or subject-adaptive learning should be used to enhance generalization. The feasibility and challenges of CCTV-camera-based hand hygiene recognition are discussed. The results may contribute to design a hand hygiene scoring and alert system as part of the IoT system in hospitals. The hospital data and code are available at https://github.com/SunnySideUp11/ICU-MH-20.

Current issues in hand hygiene.

BACKGROUND: Multiple aspects of hand hygiene have changed in recent years. METHODS: A PubMed search was conducted to identify recent articles about hand hygiene. RESULTS: The COVID-19 pandemic caused temporary changes in hand hygiene compliance rates and shortages of alcohol-based hand sanitizers (ABHSs), and in marketing of some products that were ineffective or unsafe. Fortunately, ABHSs are effective against SARS-CoV-2 and other emerging pathogens including Candida auris and mpox. Proper placement, maintenance, and design of ABHS dispensers have gained additional attention. Current evidence suggests that if an adequate volume of ABHS has been applied to hands, personnel must rub their hands together for at least 15 seconds before hands feel dry (dry time), which is the primary driver of antimicrobial efficacy. Accordingly, practical methods of monitoring hand hygiene technique are needed. Direct observation of hand hygiene compliance remains a challenge in many healthcare facilities, generating increased interest in automated hand hygiene monitoring systems (AHHMSs). However, several barriers have hindered widespread adoption of AHHMSs. AHHMSs must be implemented as part of a multimodal improvement program to successfully improve hand hygiene performance rates. CONCLUSIONS: Remaining gaps in our understanding of hand hygiene warrant continued research into factors impacting hand hygiene practices.

Educational intervention to improve infection prevention and control practices in four companion animal clinics in Switzerland.

BACKGROUND: Infection prevention and control (IPC) practices vary among companion animal clinics, and outbreaks with carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CPE) have been described. AIM: To investigate the effect of an IPC intervention (introduction of IPC protocols, IPC lectures, hand hygiene campaign) in four companion animal clinics. METHODS: IPC practices, environmental and hand contamination with antimicrobial-resistant micro-organisms (ARM) and hand hygiene (HH) were assessed at baseline, and 1 and 5 months after the intervention. RESULTS: Median IPC scores (% maximum score) improved from 57.8% (range 48.0-59.8%) to 82.9% (range 81.4-86.3%) at 1-month follow-up. Median cleaning frequency assessed by fluorescent tagging increased from 16.7% (range 8.9-18.9%) to 30.6% (range 27.8-52.2%) at 1-month follow-up and 32.8% (range 32.2-33.3%) at 5-month follow-up. ARM contamination was low in three clinics at baseline and undetectable after the intervention. One clinic showed extensive contamination with ARM including CPE before and after the intervention (7.5-16.0% ARM-positive samples and 5.0-11.5% CPE-positive samples). Mean HH compliance improved from 20.9% [95% confidence interval (CI) 19.2-22.8%] to 42.5% (95% CI 40.4-44.7%) at 1-month follow-up and 38.7% (95% CI 35.7-41.7%) at 5-month follow-up. Compliance was lowest in the pre-operative preparation area at baseline (11.8%, 95% CI 9.3-14.8%) and in the intensive care unit after the intervention (28.8%, 95% CI 23.3-35.1%). HH compliance was similar in veterinarians (21.5%, 95% CI 19.0-24.3%) and nurses (20.2%, 95% CI 17.9-22.7%) at baseline, but was higher in veterinarians (46.0%, 95% CI 42.9-49.1%) than nurses (39.0%, 95% CI 36.0-42.1%) at 1-month follow-up. CONCLUSION: The IPC intervention improved IPC scores, cleaning frequency and HH compliance in all clinics. Adapted approaches may be needed in outbreak situations.

Core components of infection prevention and control programs at the facility level in Kazakhstan: key challenges and opportunities.

BACKGROUND: Kazakhstan is developing a National Roadmap to strengthen its Infection Prevention and Control (IPC), but until recently has lacked a country-wide facility-level assessment of IPC performance gaps. METHODS: In 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO)'s IPC Core Components and Minimal Requirements were assessed at 78 randomly selected hospitals across 17 administrative regions using adapted WHO tools. The study included site assessments, followed by structured interviews with 320 hospital staff, validation observations of IPC practices, and document reviews. RESULTS: All hospitals had at least one dedicated IPC staff member, 76% had IPC staff with any formal IPC training; 95% established an IPC committee and 54% had an annual IPC workplan; 92% had any IPC guidelines; 55% conducted any IPC monitoring in the past 12 months and shared the results with facility staff, but only 9% used monitoring data for improvements; 93% had access to a microbiological laboratory for HAI surveillance, but HAI surveillance with standardized definitions and systematic data collection was conducted in only one hospital. Adequate bed spacing of at least 1 m in all wards was maintained in 35% of hospitals; soap and paper towels were available at the hand hygiene stations in 62% and 38% of hospitals, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Existing IPC programs, infrastructure, IPC staffing, workload and supplies present within hospitals in Kazakhstan allow for implementation of effective IPC. Development and dissemination of IPC guidelines based on the recommended WHO IPC core components, improved IPC training system, and implementation of systematic monitoring of IPC practices will be important first steps towards implementing targeted IPC improvement plans in facilities.

Recommendations for hand hygiene in community settings: a scoping review of current international guidelines.

BACKGROUND: Hand hygiene is an important measure to prevent disease transmission. OBJECTIVE: To summarise current international guideline recommendations for hand hygiene in community settings and to assess to what extent they are consistent and evidence based. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: We included international guidelines with one or more recommendations on hand hygiene in community settings-categorised as domestic, public or institutional-published by international organisations, in English or French, between 1 January 1990 and 15 November 2021. DATA SOURCES: To identify relevant guidelines, we searched the WHO Institutional Repository for Information Sharing Database, Google, websites of international organisations, and contacted expert organisations and individuals. CHARTING METHODS: Recommendations were mapped to four areas related to hand hygiene: (1) effective hand hygiene; (2) minimum requirements; (3) behaviour change and (4) government measures. Recommendations were assessed for consistency, concordance and whether supported by evidence. RESULTS: We identified 51 guidelines containing 923 recommendations published between 1999 and 2021 by multilateral agencies and international non-governmental organisations. Handwashing with soap is consistently recommended as the preferred method for hand hygiene across all community settings. Most guidelines specifically recommend handwashing with plain soap and running water for at least 20 s; single-use paper towels for hand drying; and alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) as a complement or alternative to handwashing. There are inconsistent and discordant recommendations for water quality for handwashing, affordable and effective alternatives to soap and ABHR, and the design of handwashing stations. There are gaps in recommendations on soap and water quantity, behaviour change approaches and government measures required for effective hand hygiene. Less than 10% of recommendations are supported by any cited evidence. CONCLUSION: While current international guidelines consistently recommend handwashing with soap across community settings, there remain gaps in recommendations where clear evidence-based guidance might support more effective policy and investment.

Train-the-Trainers in hand hygiene facilitate the implementation of the WHO hand hygiene multimodal improvement strategy in Japan: evidence for the role of local trainers, adaptation, and sustainability.

BACKGROUND: "Train-the-Trainers in hand hygiene" (TTT) is a standardized training to train infection prevention and control (IPC) practitioners with the aim to promote hand hygiene in health care according to the World Health Organization (WHO) multimodal improvement strategy. Little is known in the literature about the sustained impact of hand hygiene and IPC trainings adapted locally. The aim of this study is to describe the impact of three TTT courses conducted annually in Japan on the adoption of the WHO multimodal improvement strategy by local IPC practitioners who became a "trainer" after their first TTT participation as a "trainee". METHODS: Three TTT courses were conducted annually from 2020 to 2022 in Japan. A team "TTT-Japan" composed of more than 20 IPC practitioners who completed their first TTT participation adapted the original TTT program to reflect the local healthcare context in Japan, and subsequently convened the 2nd and 3rd TTTs. Pre- and post-course evaluations and post-course satisfaction surveys of the course participants were conducted to assess improvement in knowledge on hand hygiene and perception towards the course, respectively. Attitude and practice surveys of the TTT-Japan trainers were conducted to assess their perception and experience in hand hygiene promotion. The Hand Hygiene Self-Assessment Framework (HHSAF), a validated tool created by WHO to monitor the capacity of hand hygiene promotion at facility level, was applied at TTT-Japan trainers' facilities to compare results before and after trainers' engagement. We applied inductive thematic analysis for qualitative analyses of open-ended survey questions of the trainers' attitude and practice surveys, and the Wilcoxon Sign Rank test for quantitive comparisons of pre- and post-data for the surveys and HHSAF. RESULTS: 158 Japanese healthcare workers participated in three TTT courses, the majority of whom (131, 82.9%) were nurses. Twenty-seven local trainers were involved in 2nd and 3rd TTTs. The scores of pre- and post-course evaluations significantly improved after the course (P < 0.001) and the improvement was consistent across all three TTTs. Post-course satisfaction survey showed that over 90% of the participants reported that the course met their expectations and that what they learned in the courses would be useful for their practice. Trainers' attitude and practice survey showed that more than three quarters (76.9%) of the trainers reported that their experience as a trainer had a positive impact on their practice at their own facilities. Qualitative analysis of the trainers' attitude and practice survey revealed that trainers appreciated continuous learning as a trainer, and group effort to promote hand hygiene as the TTT-Japan team. The HHSAF institutional climate change element at the trainers' facilities significantly improved after their engagement as a trainer (P = 0.012). CONCLUSIONS: TTTs were successfully adapted and implemented in Japan, leading to sustained hand hygiene promotion activities by local trainers over three years. Further research is warranted to assess the long-term impact on local hand hygiene promotion in different settings.

Assessing hand hygiene knowledge, attitude, behavior and adherence among nursing assistants: A cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: This study explored hand hygiene knowledge, attitude, behaviors and adherence amongst nursing assistants. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was conducted with structured questionnaires and direct observation. Nursing assistants were recruited from two long-term care facilities in eastern Taiwan from July to September, 2021. RESULTS: The nursing assistants had high levels of hand hygiene knowledge, attitude, and behavior, however, the direct observational revealed hand hygiene adherence at 58.6% with 17.99 seconds duration on average. Comparing with alcohol-based hand rub, the nursing assistants performed very low adherence rate with soap and water wash, and the use of paper towel was the least followed skill applying to soap and water wash. CONCLUSIONS: The study finds that hand wash with soap and water has lower adherence than the alcohol-based hand rub. Future innovations in hand hygiene, such as accessible and easy-to-use hand washing agents and easy-to-remember hand cleansing techniques will be valuable.

Hand hygiene compliance in the intensive care unit: Hand hygiene and glove changes.

BACKGROUND: Hand disinfection (HD) is known to be the single most effective prevention measure to avoid nosocomial infections, but the compliance rate (CR) remains low. The aim of this study was to determine the incidence of HD opportunities and the CR during the treatment of critically ill patients. One special focus was on glove usage to determine whether gloves were substituted for HD. METHODS: This is a single-blinded direct observation of employees of an.ßintensive care unit. One specially educated observer recorded all hand hygiene indications over a period of 21 8-hour shifts as well as performed HD and study of glove use behavior. RESULTS: Over a period of 168.ßhours, 2,036 HDs should be performed during the care for 1 intensive care unit patient. In total, only 690 HDs occurred, resulting in a CR of 33.9%. With regard to the nurses, there was an HD opportunity around the clock every 6.ßminutes on average. About 17% of the total working time would have to be applied for 100% correct hand hygiene application. Donning or changing of gloves took place in 38.2% of all indications for HD. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that HD opportunities occur in high frequency during the treatment of critically ill patients. The compliance with HD remains too low, even when a 100% CR seems to be unachievable. Improvements should focus on aseptic procedures, combining the lowest CR with the highest procedural risk for the patient. The Healthcare Personal (HCP) uses gloves when an HD opportunity occurs. Implementing glove disinfection strategies in daily routine might help optimize patient care.

Risk of microbial transmission by reusing gloves after alcohol-based hand hygiene.

BACKGROUND: Disinfection of gloves might reduce the workload of healthcare workers, protect the environment, and bring economic benefits. Thus, the safety of hand hygiene of gloved hands is an important issue. AIM: We aimed to evaluate the risk of microbial transmission by comparing residual micro-organisms after multiple patient contacts, with or without gloves, in clinical practice. METHODS: Researchers, two with gloved hands (single or double gloves) and one with bare hands, made rounds of patients, followed by alcohol-based hand rub. Hand imprints were obtained before and after the rounds and cultured. The number of colony-forming units (cfu) of gloved and bare hands was compared, and the colony distribution was evaluated semi-quantitatively by hand region. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION: A total of 108 imprints were obtained after 10 rounds. The median cfu counts were significantly higher in the gloved hands (single and double) than in the bare hands (9.00 vs 3.50, P=0.028). The cfu counts of single- and double-gloved hands were higher after than before contact (P=0.044 and P=0.001, respectively). Carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii was identified in a pair of double gloves after a round, which included patients with the same organism with identical antibiotic susceptibility results. The mean percentage of colony-growing compartments from gloved hands was significantly higher than that of bare hands in the finger and wrist regions (P=0.019 and P=0.049, respectively). Compared with bare hands, reuse of gloves increased residual microbial colonies and potential for transmission of multi-drug-resistant organisms, even after using alcohol-based hand rub.

WHO 'My five moments for hand hygiene' in anaesthesia induction: a video-based analysis reveals novel system challenges and design opportunities.

BACKGROUND: Anaesthesia induction is a fast-paced, complex activity that involves a high density of hand-to-surface exposures. Hand hygiene (HH) adherence has been reported to be low, which bears the potential for unnoticed pathogen transmission between consecutive patients. AIM: To study the fit of the World Health Organization's (WHO) five moments of HH concept to the anaesthesia induction workflow. METHODS: Video recordings of 59 anaesthesia inductions were analysed according to the WHO HH observation method considering each hand-to-surface exposure of every involved anaesthesia provider. Binary logistic regression was used to determine risk factors for non-adherence, i.e. professional category, gender, task role, gloves, holding of objects, team size and HH moment. Additionally, half of all videos were recoded for quantitative and qualitative analysis of provider self-touching. FINDINGS: Overall, 2240 HH opportunities were met by 105 HH actions (4.7%). The drug administrator role (odds ratio (OR): 2.2), the senior physician status (OR: 2.1), donning (OR: 2.6) and doffing (OR: 3.6) of gloves were associated with higher HH adherence. Notably, 47.2% of all HH opportunities were caused by self-touching behaviour. Provider clothes, face, and patient skin were the most frequently touched surfaces. CONCLUSION: The high density of hand-to-surface exposures, a high cognitive load, prolonged glove use, carried mobile objects, self-touching, and personal behaviour patterns were potential causes for non-adherence. A purpose-designed HH concept based on these results, involving the introduction of designated objects and provider clothes to the patient zone, could improve HH adherence and microbiological safety.

Recognition of hand disinfection by an alcohol-containing gel using two-dimensional imaging in a clinical setting.

BACKGROUND: Hand hygiene compliance is important for the prevention of healthcare-associated infections. The conventional method of measuring hand disinfection guidelines involves an external observer watching the staff personnel, which introduces bias, and observations are only made for a set period of time. An unbiased, non-invasive automated system for assessing hand sanitization actions can provide a better estimate of compliance. AIM: To develop an automated detector to assess hand hygiene compliance in hospitals, without bias from an external observer, capable of making observations at different times of the day, as non-invasive as possible by using only one camera, and collecting as much information as possible from two-dimensional video footage. METHODS: Video footage with annotations from various sources was collected to determine when staff performed hand disinfection with gel-based alcohol. The frequency response of wrist movement was used to train a support vector machine to identify hand sanitization events. FINDINGS: This system detected sanitization events with an accuracy of 75.18%, a precision of 72.89%, and a recall of 80.91%. These metrics provide an overall estimate of hand sanitization compliance without bias due to the presence of an external observer while collecting data over time. CONCLUSION: Investigation of these systems is important because they are not constrained by time-limited observations, are non-invasive, and they eliminate observer bias. Although there is room for improvement, the proposed system provides a fair assessment of compliance that the hospital can use as a reference to take appropriate action.

Steady amelioration of institutional hand hygiene behavior among health care personnel after 12-year consistent intervention.

BACKGROUND: Institutional hand hygiene (HH) behavior is difficult to monitor and improve consistently, especially over long periods. This study aimed to investigate the long-term effects of HH promotion activities. METHOD: We launched the HH promotion team in 2010 and conducted interventions including goal setting, observation and feedback, education, reward incentives, and accountability. Optimal HH compliance rates were calculated based on adherence to all 6-step HH technique and appropriate time recommended by the World Health Organization. HH and optimal HH compliance were calculated over 12 years. Poisson regression analysis was used to determine the trend in HH compliance according to year. RESULTS: In 2010, HH and optimal HH compliance were 59.7% and 15.6%, respectively. HH compliance increased by 83.9% in 2013 and remained over 75%. HH compliance increased significantly, with a relative risk (RR) of 1.014 (95% CI 1.002-1.025, P = .018). Optimal HH compliance increased by 67.8% in 2013 and remained over 60%, except in 2016 (58.8%) and 2019 (59.8%). Optimal HH compliance increased with RR 1.033 (95% CI 0.991-1.076, P = .123). DISCUSSION: HH and optimal HH compliance increased significantly over the 12 years when subgroup analysis was performed by job category. CONCLUSIONS: HH promotion team activities improved and maintained optimal HH compliance among HCWs.

Development and Evaluation of BLE-Based Room-Level Localization to Improve Hand Hygiene Performance Estimation.

Hand hygiene is one of the most effective ways to prevent infection transmission. However, current electronic monitoring systems are not able to identify adherence to all hand hygiene (HH) guidelines. Location information can play a major role in enhancing HH monitoring resolution. This paper proposes a BLE-based solution to localize healthcare workers inside the patient room. Localization accuracy was evaluated using one to four beacons in a binary (entrance/proximal patient zone) or multiclass (entrance/sink/right side of the bed/left side of the bed) proximity-based positioning problem. Dynamic fingerprints were collected from nine different subjects performing 30 common nursing activities. Extremely randomized trees algorithm achieved the best accuracies of 81% and 71% in the binary and multiclass classifications, respectively. The proposed method can be further used as a proxy for caregiving activity recognition to improve the risk of infection transmission in healthcare settings.